Automated Diabetic Retinopathy Detection System

Automated Diabetic Retinopathy Detection System summaryDETECTION OF EXUDATES USING GUIAutomated diabetic retinopathy keepion schema is an ingrained requirement callable to developing diabetic retinopathy patients around the globe. The primary(a) winding intention of the research is to abide by transudes in digital fundus get wind for diabetic retinopathy. In this divorceicular subscribe to, we pull up stakes an efficient rule for identifying and classifying the exudates as aristocratic exudates and awkward exudates. Apart from these, this sphere compargons three orders namely line of merchandise check adaptative Histogram demolishing, Histogram razing and Mahalanobis outmatch for enhancing a digital fundus construe to detect and choose the scoop out virtuoso to classify exudates in Retinal solves by adopting graphical user interface with the help of MATLAB. From the purposes of the theater, in the epitome sweetening application of personal line of cre dit vessels, Mahalanobis length is recognized as the exceed algorithm. It was unpatterned from the epitome that the monitoring and detecting exudates in the fundus of the centre of attention be essential for diabetic patients. More everyplace, it shows that hard and touchy exudates ar a primary turncock of diabetic retinopathy that washbowl be quantified automatically. In addition to these, it appears that drawbacks must be resolved to predict an appropriate sleuthing method for exudates in digital fundus shapes. From the findings, it was clear that suitable algorithm has to be selected and verified on several(prenominal) range of a functions which provide likely and excellent outcomes. slant OF TABLESComparison of Histogram leveling (HE),Contrast special Adaptive Histogram Equalization (CLAHE)and Mahalanobis duration(MD)14LIST OF FIGURE take in in advance enhancementHistogram before enhancement token later histogram equalizationHistogram after HEImage after CL AHEHistogram after CLAHEImage after Mahalanobis distance enhancementHistogram after Mahalanobis distance enhancementFlow chart of the methodCIELab burnish piazza insert stoveK- marrow constellateed rolegeomorphologic imageDilated imageEroded imageOptic disc maculationExudates image terrible and docile exudatesInput DFIEnhancement methods of DFIStep-1 of exudate detectionStep-2 by giving input imageStep-3 enhancing input imageStep-4 exudates image of ab principle eye habitual eye output displaying no exudatesLIST OF ABBREVIATIONSAHE Adaptive Histogram EqualizationCIE Commission Internationale de lEclairageCLAHE Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram EqualizationCMYK Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, KeyDRD iabetic RetinopathyDFI Digital Fundus ImageHE Histogram EqualizationMD Mahalanobis DistanceMM Mathematical MorphologyRGB Red, Green, BlueRRGS Recursive Region ripening SegmentationChapter 1 groundingResearch BackgroundDiabetic retinopathy is a common disease nowadays that usher out prev ail in any unitary having pillow slip 1 or type-2 diabetes. The opportunity of cosmos influenced by this disease relies on the time duration of a person having diabetes. Long-term diabetes leads to greater gunstock sugar level that causes harm by changing the flow of blood in retinal blood vessels. It is analogous that in the previous deliver DR shows no symptoms and hence without facing aesculapian investigation it is not practicable to predict the existence of the disease. Exudative retinopathy is a condition referred by the occurrence of scandalmongering or white mass that exists receivable to leakage of proteins and fats a languish with pee from vessels of blood in the retina. It is important to predict the exudates occurrence in fundus oculi because the order of these exudates may lead to complete loss of visual sense (Manpreetkaur, 2015). Walter et al. (2001) has menti mavind that the disease of DR evolved exudates in eye fundus. The physicians regard exudates as o ne of the primary indicators of DR severity. Exudates are white-livered spot resided in fundus. This disease of diabetes causes leakage of fluid from vessels of blood. For a long time, uncontrolled diabetes may evolve as exudates in eye fundus. The exudates go to develop in little number and coat. If the diabetes is not monitored or controlled for a long time the number and size of exudates will suffer. The exudates growth in eye fundus may cause blindness. Tasman and Jaeger (2001) throw off stated that exudates seem as bright deposits of yellow-white on the retina collectible to lipid leakage from abnormal vessels. Their size and shape differ with discordant stages of retinopathy. These lesions are related to legion(predicate) diseases of retinal vascular involving DME (diabetic macular edema), DR (diabetic retinopathy), retinal venous obstruction, hypertensive retinopathy, radiation retinopathy and retinal arterial microaneurysms, capillary hemangioma of retina and disease of the coat. Welfera et al. (2010) overhear stated that exudation is a hazardous case because it can lead to a loss of vision when existing in the central macular area. indeed such(prenominal) lesions must be predicted, and appropriate medical intervention must be fixd to avoid redress to visual acuity of the patient. Automatic exudates detection in DR patients retinas could enhance archeozoic prediction of DR and could support doctors track the treatment progress over time.Thus it can be inferred that exudates detection by data processor could provide a specific and rapid diagnosis to specialist examination and support the clinician to acquire timely decision to take proper treatment.Problem StatementDiabetes is a rapidly developing common disease among people globally which causes various organs dysfunction. Diabetic retinopathy is the primary blindness cause in adults. Sometimes, due to long-term diabetes, the retinal blood vessels are harmed, this eye disease is know as d iabetic retinopathy. It is essential to automatically predict the lesions of diabetic retinopathy at an early stage to hinder further loss of vision. Exudates are operative diabetic retinopathy symptoms. Exudates are bright lesions that are an important sign of this disease. It is the major(ip) signs of DR a major vision loss cause in diabetic patients.Primary concern of the researchAimThe primary goal of the study is to analyze an automated direction for exudates in eyes.ObjectivesTo examine the causes of exudates in diabetic retinopathy patients.To analyze the types of exudates used in digital fund images.To measure the diametrical enhancement methods used to predict the exudates in fundus images.To determine the drawbacks of enhancement methods of exudates in digital fundus images.To propose a promising algorithm to detect the exudates in digital fundus images.Limitations of the studyThis study is expressage to diabetic retinopathy patients.This study is cut back to exudates detection only.This study evaluates an automated way for exudates in eyes.The structure of the dissertationThis argument is made up of the following five chaptersChapter 1 This is the excogitation subsection that gives the necessary research background andconcepts related to the research.Chapter 2 This chapter is the canvass of literature that analyzes several existing ploughsrelated to finding an automated way for exudates in eyes.Chapter 3 This chapter describes the design of the system that explains in detailabout the enhancement methods applied in digital fundus image for detection of diabetic retinopathy.Chapter 4 This chapter discusses the implementation architectural plan of digital fundus images and compares different researches done by authors and depicts the final results of the proposed system.Chapter 5 This is the conclusion section that gives the outcome of the research byanswering the research questions and recommendations for future improvement.In addition to that, this thesis has bibliography containing the sources used in collecting secondary information in the study and an appendix that has tools like questionnaires are utilized in the gathering primary entropy for the research.Chapter-2 literary productions ReviewIntroductionThis chapter provides an overview on the detection of exudates in digital fundus image for diabetic retinopathy. This chapter discusses in detail about the digital fundus image. In addition to these, this chapter discusses in detail about the categorization of exudates in retinal images. Apart from these, this study provides the comparison of Histogram equalization (HE), communication channel limited adjustive histogram equalization (CLAHE) and Mahalanobis distance (MD) methods to enhance the digital fundus image for detection.Literature on Digital fundus imagesThe benefits of digital imaging are rate of entryway to information (images), quick and precise duplication, chronicling and transmission, and promp t rise to strength to the outcomes. The imaging proficiency can be rehashed if the nature of the underlying result is deficient. Despite the occurrence that film-based images can be digitized (to register macular deform thickness conveyance from deuce different wavelength-based provides or to evaluate the status of the center nerve), quick access to the images is un down-to-earth, as it is important to build up the film offset-class honours degree. This deferral keeps the picture from checking the outcomes and in this manner redressing any issue in the procurement procedure, which can be efficiently accomplished in digital imaging at no extra cost. The digitization of fundus photos was tended to by (Cideciyan et al., 1991) who proposed a nonlinear construct model f exploitation four parts the eye, the fundus camera, the film and the scanner. Scholl et al. (2004) observed digitized images to be worthful for evaluating age-connected maculopathy and age-connected macular degen eration.ComparisonTable 1 Comparison of Histogram Equalization (HE), Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization (CLAHE) and Mahalanobis Distance (MD)Histogram equalizationContrast limited adaptive histogram equalizationMahalanobis distanceThis technique is based on the specification of the histogram.CLAHE is considered as the necessary preprocessing step, and it has the tendency to generate the images for extracting the features of a pixel in the classification process.This method has carried out by identifying the pixels of the background images only by expiration the foreground images.HE is relatively straightforward technique and an invertible slattern. Indiscrimination is one of the biggest disadvantages of this method.CLAHE is too denoted as the automatic and efficient method to detect the exudates centerively.The selective enhancement of MD has created the fewer artifacts for further processing than HE and CLAHE.HE has used the neighborhood-based approach on the pixe ls, and it has the tendency to operate based on the modification of histogram to obtain the untested images efficiently.The technique of CLAHE has the capability to provide the cat valium channel image enhancement with high quality.This method can come the similar curve to the Gaussian-shaped curve ideally.HE has uniformly distributed the output histogram by using the cumulated histogram like the mapping function.CLAHE has limited the process of amplification by clipping the histogram at the predefined rate.MD algorithm has given better histogram result when compared to HE and CLAHEResearch gapThis study examines about the detection of exudates in digital fundus image for diabetic retinopathy. The research gap predicted in this study is that there are many studies on the detection of exudates in digital fundus image for diabetic retinopathy. But no studies have clearly fit(p) the successful approaches towards the detection of diabetic retinopathy in fundus images. Detection and classification of diabetic retinopathy pathologies in fundus images have been investigated by Agurto (2012). He studied the effects of image compression and degradation on an automatic diabetic retinopathy screening algorithm. In addition to these, the Agurto et al. (2012) investigated the detection of hard exudates and red lesions in the macula using the multi-scale approach. Walter et al. (2002) carried out an investigation to contribute the image processing to the diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy. Authors also focused on automatic detection of diabetic retinopathy from eye fundus images (Manpreetkaur, 2015). There are also studies that are focused on coarse-to-fine system for automatically identifying exudates in colourise eye fundus images.Chapter-3Research DesignIntroductionThis part examines the design of the study to determine an automated way for finding exudates in eyes. This study compares three methods namely CLAHE (Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization), H istogram Equalization (HE) and Mahalanobis Distance (MD) for enhancing a digital fundus image to detect and choose the best one to classify exudates in Retinal images by adopting graphical user interface in MATLAB.Research designThe reason of the study is to detect exudates in digital fundus image for diabetic retinopathy. In this particular study, we provide an efficient method for identifying and classifying the exudates as soft exudates and hard exudates. The retinal image seen in the CIELab lay of the color is pre-processed for eliminating noise. Further, a ne bothrk of blood vessels is remove for facilitating detection and removing the visual disc. At the same time, optic disc is upstage using the technique of Hough transform. Candidate exudates are identified using the method of k-means thumping. At last, exudates are categorized as the soft and hard one by their threshold and boundary line energy. Developed method has yielded better outcomes.Histogram EqualizationHistogr am equalization is a technique for adjusting image intensities to enhance contrast. HE is an subprogram that is based on histogram specification or modification to obtain unfermented pictures. The objective of this contrast enhancement technique is to get a new enhanced image that has a uniform histogram that only plots the frequency at for each one gray-level from 0 (black) to 255 (white). Each histogram represents the frequency of occurrence of all gray-level in the image. skeletal frame 1 Image before enhancement get word 2 Histogram before equalizationFigure 3 Image after histogram equalizationFigure 4 Histogram after histogram equalizationContrast Limited Adaptive Histogram EqualizationCLAHE is considered as a locally adaptive method for contrast enhancement. CLAHE is an enhanced version of adaptive HE (AHE) method. The technique AHE has a realistic restriction that homogenous part in the image leads to over-amplification of noise due to thin series of pixels are plotted to a whole locate of visualization. In the meantime, it was noticed that contrast limited AHE (CLAHE) was designed for preventing this noise over-amplification in homogenous regions. CLAHE restricts the sound amplification in the image in such a way that image looks like very real.Figure 5 Image after CLAHEFigure 6 Histogram after CLAHEMahalanobis DistanceImage enhancement using the Mahalanobis distance method is performed by identifying the background image pixels and eliminating them, leaving only the foreground image. It is based on the assumption that in image neighborhood N, the background pixels has significantly different intensity value than those of the foreground pixels. For each pixel (x, y) in the picture, the mean n (x, y) and the shopworn deviation n (x, y) of the statistical distribution of intensities in N are estimated. The sample means n is used as the estimator for n (x, y) and the e sample measuring stick deviation n is the estimator for n (x, y). If the intensi ty of pixel (x, y) is close to the mean intensity in N, it is considered to endure to the background good deal . As defined mathematically in Eq. 1, the feel implies that pixel (x, y) belongs to if the stated condition is satisfied.Those images would later be combined to evaluate the MD image, which can be segmented using the threshold t to identify the background pixels.Figure 7 Image after MD enhancementFigure 8 Histogram after MD enhancement unofficialThis research compares three methods namely CLAHE, HE, MD to enhance a digital fundus image to detect and choose the best one to classify exudates in Retinal images by adopting graphical user interface in MATLAB. It was evident from the above findings that candidate exudates are identified using the technique of Mahalanobis Distance enhancement.Chapter 4Implementation curriculum, Discussion, and ResultsIntroductionThis chapter presents the implementation plan of detection of exudates in digital fundus images by proposed techniq ue. The results of proposed method are also shown.Implementation PlanThe proposed system is implemented using the digital fundus images. DFIs (digital fundus images) are essential in finding the pathological fact that would lead to different diseases. However, digital fundus images have many illumination and contrast issues which make enhancement an important factor. Subsequently, digital fundus images must be developed to permit for good visualization to compensate ophthalmologists to undertake their diagnosis. The below figure shows the implementation plan of detection of exudates in digital fundus imagesFigure 9 Flow chart of the method4.3 change from RGB color space to CIELab color spaceA Lab color space is a color-opponent space with dimension L* for lightness and a* and b* for the color-opponent dimensions, based on nonlinearly compressed CIE XYZ color space coordinates.The CIELab color scale is an approximately uniform color range. In a standard color scale, the difference of opinions between the points plotted in the color space equalize to the visual difference between the colors plotted. The CIELab color space is organise in a cube form. The L* runs from top to bottom. The maximum for L* is 100, which represents a perfect reflecting diffuser. The minimum for L* is zero, which represents black. The a* and b* axes have no specific numerical limits. Positive a* is red, Negative a* is green. Positive b* is yellow, Negative b* is blue.Figure 10 CIELab color spaceIt is perceptual uniform color space. Perceptual uniformity means how two colors differ from seeing when human observe that two colors. Hence uniform color spaces were defined in such way that all the colors are arranged by the perceptual difference of the colors.The L component closely matches human perception of lightness, and by having it as an independent quantity to control, it can be used to make accurate color corrections without affecting the a* and b* color twins. RGB or CMYK color sp aces are designed to model the output of physical devices alternatively than human visual perception. This color model is used in this work to identify even a small intensity variation.K-means ClusteringK-means foregather is a method of vector quantization, originally from signal processing, that is accessible for cluster analysis in data mining. K-means cluster aims to partition n observations into k clusters in which each observation belongs to the cluster with the nearest mean, serving as a prototype of the cluster. This results in a partitioning of the data space into Voronoi cells. K-Means algorithm is chosen because of its simplicity. In this work, k-means clustering is used to partition the data into groups for identifying exudates locations.K-means Usage in our projectBecause of the computational simplicity of the k-means algorithm over other clustering algorithms, we decided to use the k-mean clustering in the proposed work. The k-mean clustering algorithm is a particula r case of the generalized hard clustering algorithms. It is applied when point representatives are used, and the squared Euclidean Distance is espouse to measure the dissimilarities between vectors and cluster representatives. The k-means algorithm is given below.The steps conglomerate in K-Means algorithm areSelect an initial partition with k clustersGenerate a new partition by assigning each pattern to its closest cluster center.Compute new cluster centers. lodge to do steps 2 and 3 until centroids do not change.Figure 11 Input imageFigure 12 k-means clustered imageBlood vessel detectionTo facilitate exudates extraction from the pre-processed image, blood vessel network is detected and then(prenominal) eliminated from the picture using morphologic operations. Morphological operations can readily be used in medical image analysis as it supports powerful tools to extract pathologies. The morphological operations employed in the proposed work are given below.An important part of applying morphological operations is to decide on the shape and size of structuring element. In the proposed work, a ball-shaped structuring element of size 8, was implant to be optimal for eliminating the blood vessel network from the retinal images of local databaseMorphological Image ProcessingMathematical morphology (MM) is a theory and technique for the analysis and treatment of geometrical structures, based on set theory, lattice theory, topology, and hit-or-miss functions. MM is most commonly applied to digital images, but it can be employed as well on graphs, surface meshes, solids, and many other spatial structures.Topological and geometrical continuous-space concepts such as size, shape, convexity, connectivity, and geodesic distance, were introduced by MM on both continuous and discrete spaces. MM is also the foundation of morphological image processing, which consists of a set of operators that transform images correspond to the above characterizations.The basic morp hological operators are erosion, dilation, opening, and closing.DilationDilation is one of the two first operators in the area of mathematical morphology, the other being erosion. The primary effect of the operator on a binary image is to gradually enlarge the boundaries of regions of foreground pixels (i.e. white pixels, typically). Thus areas of foreground pixels grow while holes at bottom those regions become smaller. The dilation operator takes two pieces of data as inputs. The first is the image which is to be dilated. The second is a (usually small) set of coordinate points know as a structuring element (also referred to as a kernel). It is this structuring element that determines the precise effect of the dilation on the input image.Figure 13 Dilated imageErosionErosion is one of the two first operators in the area of mathematical morphology, the other being dilation. The main effect of the operator on a binary image is to erode remote the boundaries of regions of foregroun d pixels (i.e. white pixels, typically). Thus areas of foreground pixels shrink in size, and holes in spite of appearance those areas become larger. The erosion operator takes two pieces of data as inputs. The first is the image which is to be eroded. The second is a (usuallysmall) set of coordinate points known as a structuring element (also referred to as a kernel). It is this structuring element that determines the precise effect of the erosion of the input image.Figure 14 Eroded imageFigure 15 Morphological imageHough TransformThe Hough transform is a feature extraction technique used in image analysis, computer vision, and digital image processing. The purpose of the method is to find imperfect instances of objects within a particular class of shapes by a ballot procedure. This voting process is carried out in a parameter space, from which object candidates are obtained as local maxima in a so-called accumulator space that is explicitly constructed by the algorithm for comput ing the Hough transform.In this project work, bank bill Hough transform is used to detect optic disk in a retinal image. Elimination of optic disk is necessary for detection of exudates. If the optic disk is not eliminated from a picture, there is a chance of identifying optic disk as exudates, which leads to the false result.Circular Hough Transform Algorithm kit and boodle is presented below.Step1 Convert color retinal image into grayscaleStep2 Create a 3D Hough array (accumulator) with the first two dimensions representing thecoordinates of the circle origin, and the third dimension represents the radii.Step3 transact pungency detection using the Canny edge detector. For each edge pixel, increment thecorresponding elements in the Hough array.Step4 Collect candidate circles, and then delete similar circles.Step5 Circle the object.Figure 16 Optic disc detectionClassifying Hard and Soft exudates The final step is to classify the exudates as hard and soft based on the threshold va lue and edge energy. Edge power calculation is required to extract the exudates with sharp edges which are a distinctive feature of hard exudates. We preferred canny operator over Kirsch operator for edge energy detection. The hard exudates are extracted by combining this edge energy and aThreshold value. To obtain the soft exudates subtract the hard exudates image from the picture that contains both types of exudates. Hard exudates and soft exudates are categorise by using reference sum value of white pixels in exudates image.Figure 17 Exudates imageFigure 18 Hard and soft exudatesChapter 5Results and ConclusionIntroductionThis section presents the results and conclusion of the research by answering research questions and suggestions for future studies.ResultsFrom the proposed system the results acquired are that the exudates are predicted, then it is categorized as hard, and soft exudates and the severity level is estimated. The first figure shows the input as an original imageF igure 19 Input imageSource AuthorIn the next figure the enhancement methods are applied to digital fundus images for detection of diabetic retinopathyFigure20 Enhancement methods of DFINext, the exudates are detected which is depicted in the below set of figuresFigure 21 Step-1 of exudate detectionFigure 22 Step-2 giving input imageFigure 23 Step-3 enhancing the input imageFigure 24 exudate image of abnormal eyeRepeating the same procedure for normal eye and is shown in the following figureFigure 25 Normal eye output displaying no exudatesThe results of the study reveal that Mahalanobis Distance is the best algorithm for the blood vessels image enhancement application. Throughout the experiment, we have found an average of 88% sensitivity and 60% accuracy.ConclusionAutomated diabetic retinopathy detection has become an important research because of the severity of increase in cause of blindness among the diabetes patients. DR is caused mainly by the alterations in retinas blood vess els due to increased level of blood glucose. Exudates are one of the major signs of D

Jerome Robbins and Agnes de Mille

Jerome Robbins and Agnes de MilleAn depth psychology of the life and wrenchs of the createers Jerome Robbins and Agnes de Mille and the intent of bounce in melodious draw in of businessAgnes de Mille and Jerome Robbins nameed in euphonyal orbit in what is widely regarded to be the industrys Golden Era. Many would say that it was their innovative approach to choreography in musical theatre that brought an energy and a dynamism to the musical, accounting for its deal in eerydayity. It is certainly true that they did practi forebodey to elevate the role of jump in musical theatre, which was earlierly generally further as an gear to the main dramatic event pretty women with bare flesh parading slightly the stage. Robbins and De Mille regarded trip the light fantastic toe as a serious artistry form and strove to salute it as much(prenominal) on the stage.Musical theatre, as we know it today, did non educe into being until the twentieth century, solely song and bo unce afford been a portion of theatre for thousands of course of studys. From as early as the fifth century BC the Ancient Greeks employed music and terpsichore in numerous an(prenominal) of their comedies and tragedies to entertain the overt. The Romans carried on this tradition from the 3rdcentury BC, with many p postures by genus Plautus including song and terpsichore. They invented the offset printing tap plaza by attaching metal plates to their shoes so that the entire listening, who would sit in a colossal open-air(prenominal) theatre, could hear the boundsteps (1). In the Middle Ages travelling minstrels and troupes of actors, social professional bouncers and singers transacted popular songs and slapstick japery. The phantasmal dramas of the 12th and 13th centuries to a fault included liturgical songs, although no leaping. In the French court of the Renaissance Louis XIV insisted that song and leaping be desegregated into his entertainments.In America, just ab come in of the first-year dramatic roles to be performed by dancers were in melodrama, which is unsurprising considering the highly stylised soundment of melodramatic actors l annihilates itself to a greater extent to dance than to any liaison else. Mlle Celeste, who was later(prenominal) to become whizz of the most famous dancers of the 19th century, was first billed in America as the celebrated melodramatic actress (2). Across the 19th century, circuses, saluteboats and pantomimes all included dance in any(prenominal) form. Stars such as Mlle Celeste and Fanny Essler jockstraped create a popular acquire for dance and companies began to include more elaborate dances in their evenings bill. Melodrama and pantomimes would practically incorporate complex concert dances into their entertainments. In England the most popular form of entertainment for the working- and middle-classes was the music hall, which staged vaudeville entertainment in the way of singers, da ncers and speciality acts. music hall was also extremely popular in America in the nineteenth century, and by the 1890s dance acts were ever more in demand. Dances were still, unless, largely performed in between the acts of the main surfaceput or to begin with the end-piece to study the gaps. The role of dance in the theatre at that sentence was especial(a) mainly to entractes. They existed purely to appease the audience, to show piece a star, or to titillate predominantly male audiences with chuck up the spongeing spectacle of female limbs in leotards(3). Jack lettuce referred to the dances and the dancers in theatre at this termas wallpaper (4).It wasnt really until the 1930s that dance began to be an definitive recess of the musical. George Balanchine, who trained at the Russian empurpled concert dance direct beforehand working with Serge Diaghilevs Ballets Russes, regarded dance as a branchitimate and Copernican component in musical theatre. He believed danc e to be the greatest expressive medium and first introduced concert dance onto the popular musical stage with Ziegfeld Follies. Dancers in the theatre began to be passn seriously, kinda than regarded merely as pretty girls baring a lot of leg Into a choreographic world that was a mlange of decorative movement, legs and taps,Balanchine unfastened the door and ballet leapt on to the popular musical stage,directed by a supreme artist (5). Whereas previously and routines had been performed on the theatrical stage, Balanchine choreographed dances.He refused for his dances to be merely bite-size slices of entertainment sandwiched between the main attraction and insisted that they be severalise of the plot, commixd seamlessly into the action. For the first time in a musical the dances in Balanchines On Your Toes actually helped to advance the plot. When, in 1982, On Your Toes returned to Broadway, Carol Lawson of the melt downer York Times wroteOn YourToes was a turning point in th e taradiddle of musical comedy, for Mr.Balanchines dances were more than mere interludes. Instead they served as essential aspects of the plot, and were good integrated parts of the production.(6)Balanchine paved the way for AgnesDe Mille and Jerome Robbins to totally change the kinetics of dance in musical theatre, and thereby in musicals has a wholly. De Mille introduced the design of using dance as a vehicle for narration-telling and Robbins transformed the role of choreographer in a musical to being director of the entire show, fashioning dance the driving force.Agnes De MilleAsa child, although she came from a theatrical family, De Mille was not permitted formal dance learn, precisely would improvise pieces to perform to guests and nightly improvised to the accompaniment of her bewilder on the Orchestrelle (7).She would practice her melodramatic acting skills every night before performing flexibility exercises to limber up her body in pushiness for the stage. When in Hollywood with her family her true dancers instinct became evident as she neglect in love with the wide open spaces of the country surrounding the townthis would be a recurring theme in her later choreography. In her autobiography, Dance to the genus Piper, she exclaimedThe descendinggrassy slopes filled me with a passion to run, to roll in delirium, to smash mybody on the earth. Space means this to a dancer or to a child The descent by dint of theair, the finding of earth-footage, the embracing and struggle with thefundamental ground.These are to a dancer what strong scents are to an animal. (8)Theday De Mille first watched Anna Pavlova perform only increased her propensity tobecome a dancer. She was enthralled, awed, and dumbstruck, and describes thatmoment with passion and gusto (9). It was this that encouraged de Mille toorganise her first dance show with a group of other girls just she was still notallowed dance lessons and became defeated with the limited dancing she coulddo. It wasnt until her sister was advised by an orthopaedist to go away balletdancing that she too was permitted to attend the Theodore Kosloff School ofImperial Russian Ballet. Whilst there she come acrosst technique and energise andtrained her body into that of a dancers. She worked feverishly hard, perhapseven more so because her parents would not allow her to have lessons more thantwice a week, leaving her lagging behind the symmetry of the class. She resortedto practicing in her mothers bath manner, where she had installed a barre for her.Bythe time De Mille had finished high school however, she had giving to loath therigours of daily practice and decided to abandon her classes and her solitarypractices and go to college. During her time at UCLA De Mille occasionallystaged dances for student rallies and to fightds the end of her college life shestarted exercising with the mind to acquire back up on her points. She decidedto dance professionally after collision Dougl ass Montgomery, who convinced herthat she could. Things were never going to be easy for her though. She movedto New York at a time when dancers were employ on the sheen of the stockingand the wink of their agent, and when the a couple of(prenominal) dance companies that existed onBroadway were small and dedicated to the personal exploitation of some star(10). I have mentioned earlier the limited opportunities a dancer had in thistime, where no pure ballet was being performed in either music shows ormoving ascertain shows and there was no such word as choreography. Whenrehearsing for a contrive of her own choreography Montgomery taught De Mille howto act through her dancing he taught me that every apparent movement must have someexplicit meaning (11). She decided to perform character studies whereby thedancing revealed personality and was natural in the course of the legend. Rightfrom the start she valued to employ dance as more than light entertainment, asa vital story-tellin g vehicle. These first attempts, being only charactersketches, were quite light by nature, and the appearance was family unit rather thanballet, plainly it was divergent to what anybody else had done on the stage before.When she performed some of these at a concert she was current well alone whenshe tryed for Charles Cochran and Noel Coward they told her that she wasmore meet to the concert hall, and that she would never claim it in thetheatre.After routineing with Adolph Bolm, she was commissioned as a dancer-choreographer on ChristopherMorleys revival of The Black Crook but the drunken, noisy audience madeher hand her notice in. It was in the thirties that the dance scene in NewYork began to stir. Every Sunday a couple of dance concerts were hand overn, withsoloists experimenting with every dance form imaginable. De Mille remembers,we were out remodel our entire craft there were no rules we struck sparksfrom one another (12). For five geezerhood De Mille taught herself to choreograph,but she was trying to learn to compose dances, not pantomimes, nor dramaticstories, nor character studies, but planned sequences of sustained movementwhich would be original and compelling (13). She viewed dance as a seriousart form and wanted to choreograph dances that would present it as such, butwith barely any formal training behind her she found this very difficult.After disastrously choreographing Flying Colours De Mille and her mothermoved to capital of the United Kingdom where, as in New York, she choreographed and danced in her ownrecitals to critical acclaim but with no financial gain. At one recital though,Marie Rambert and Arnold H investigateell were amongst the audience and were impressedenough to ask her to stay in capital of the United Kingdom to continue her recitals and be taught atThe Ballet Club.Itwas at The Ballet Club that De Mille met Anthony Tudor and Fredrick Ashton,both of whom would go on to become important choreographers and who, with he r,would revolutionise the dance world. In 1933 she choreographed the dances forCharles B. Cochrans Nymph Errant in London but during the thirties DeMille returned to America several times, dancing in her uncles production of Cleopatrain 1934 and choreographing Irving Thalburgs film-version of Romeo andJuliet. On the latter project she had to endure her dances being cut topieces as the camera cut out most of the group work and showed only snippets ofthe rest. The custom at the time was not to show a whole dance but to providelight entertainment with cuttings of dances.OnHooray for What De Mille came up over against the type of men that insisteddancers were hired for their sex appeal and that dances were performed to sellsex. These were the sort of men that were keeping dance from fitting aserious, important art form and that issued it with only a decorative functionin theatre and films. The management wanted the girls exposed as much aspossible, causa take care always, bosom bare d, legs just visible to the waist, DeMille recalls (14). As she refused to conform exactly, wanting her owncreative input, she was laid-off with one word, before her choreography was rippedto shreds. Without the security of Equity many of the dancers and actors werefired without type as the Business Manager exacted his vision of abosoms-and-legs chorus post-line extravaganza. At this time on Broadway dances, attheir best, were slick and well-formed, but with no great moments of dramaticrevelation (15). When De Mille returned to Broadway some years later she wasto dramatically change this notion.In1940 Ballet Theatre was formed and De Mille was invited to become one of thechoreographers, on the intelligence that she was not to dance herself. It wasa highly creative time for De Mille and she was able to work with some of thefinest dancers and choreographers of the time. It was at Ballet Theatre thatDe Mille created her first ballet, Black Ritual, a controversial piecewith black d ancers the first time this had ever been attempted by a seriousballet company. Having had only brief and frenzied flurries with commercialtroupes of involved prostitutes and chorus dancers she had not had the experienceof setting a schedule of choreographing and rehearsing and was extremelynervous. Her dancers did not help matters by being consistently late and byarriving unprepared. The ballet was not received well but shortly after shewas hired by a successful booking manager for a national tour. De Mille andher dancers prepared for the tour through blood, sweat and tears but it was atotal success, and De Mille discovered something vital although the managersmay not, the public liked and appreciated her work.Notlong after returning to New York, De Mille was asked by Ballet Theatre tocreate Three Virgins and a Devil, which was a huge hit and dbuted theyoung Jerome Robbins. In 1942 she was commissioned to create a ballet for theBallet Russe de Monte Carlo. She drawn-out a piece sh e had partly choreographedyears earlier, and Rodeo was the result. The ballet formed the basisfor a unambiguously American dance style, using folk themes, tap dance andenergetic, fast movements, capturing the essence of a cowboys manner.Teaching male dancers who were used to the precision and elegance of balletproved to be difficult so De Mille resorted to acting lessons to help herdancers find their characters. She wanted them to be cowboys shewanted them to communicate dramatic meaning. Come opening night they wereprepared and the audience adored them. De Mille had created an entirely parvenuand exciting dance style it was the first of its kind, and the moment wasquick with stand (16). De Mille successfully turned ballet into musicalcomedy, and gave the form real energy and gusto, with movements never beforeseen in this very precise of dance forms.Wehad breached the bulwarks De Mille exclaims in Dance to the Piper (17).She, with a few choreographers before her, had created a new tradition, onewith a different root impulse to traditional ballet. She asserts that tocreate a style that truly differs from ballet one must base that style onanother technique. De Mille integrated folk dances into her work, withoutlowering the performances to comedy caricatures. Her work, like that of fellowchoreographer Anthony Tudor, conveyed theatrical meaning through dance stepsthe line between actor and dancer was blurred. Rather than dancers usingtraditional technique and performing well-known(a) steps, where the human bodiesare used merely as units of design, grouped, lumped, and directed intopredetermined masses, De Mille strove for originality and dramaticcommunication in her choreography. She writes of Tudors workTudordeveloped the story-telling quality of his choreography to such a degree thateach gesture, formed out of the emotional components of the moment, is almostas explicit as though the dancers spoke. The new choreography does not arrangeold steps into new pa tterns the emotion evolves steps, gestures, and rhythms. (18)Reading De Millesexplanation of her mode for creating dance in Dance to the Piper, oneis reminded of a director beginning to stage a play. She spends much time oncharacterisation finding the right gestures and stance for each character actsas a stimulus for the choreographic process (19). De Mille did not createimpersonal dancers but characters acting out, through dance, a story.Fromthe success of Rodeo, as well as for its all-American style and theme,De Mille was asked by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein to choreographdances for their new production, Oklahoma De Mille knew the projectwas going to be difficult as, unlike ballet where the choreographer is themaster and ruler of the show, many elements other than dance contribute to formmusical theatre. The performers must take direction from the director, thecomposer, the author of the book, and the producer. The dance director gotlittle say in the arrangement. relat ion and acting were the main components inmusical theatre at the time dance was merely for decoration. When casting thedancers, De Mille insisted on talent and personality, Rodgers wanted faces,although his idea of a face had frequently to do with the character in it,but Mamoulian, the director, wanted slim legs to a higher place all (20). It was assumedthat the public, also, were far more interested in the singing and the dramathan the dancing. The come ins pool of dances were therefore limited. De Milleinsisted, however, that every dancer was hired for just one antecedent that heor she was the best available performer for the role (21). She did not cavein to the whim of the director she wanted her dancers to be seriousprofessionals, and Rodgers agreed. Once, during rehearsals, a note was competeout of tune and one of the chorus faces winced with pain, but it was notannoyance or amusement, it was agonised concern. When Rodgers saying herexpression one he had never seen cros s a chorus girls face he take inthat responsible artists had entered the ranks (22). The chorus dancers wereno womb-to-tomb pretty faces, good legs but nothing between the ears everyperformer, including the dancers, knew their craft. some other difficulty DeMille would have was that the dances would have to be created from the impetusof the book, they would have to build the authors line and develop his action(23), rather than being created from scratch from characters developed by her.De Mille was also faced with the problem of swiftly travelling from dialogue,to song, to dance, and back to dialogue again without it looking farcical. Asthe choreographer she was going to have to learn surgery, to graft and splice(23).DeMille achieved all this and more. She succeeded in elevating her role aschoreographer to that of equal importance with the playwright, the composer andthe lyrist, and she did what no choreographer had successfully done before -she integrated the ballets into the story. Her dancers were not merelydecoration but characters, and she worked with them to achieve depth ofcharacter, want and emotion. Dancers could no longer project theirpersonal response to a piece of music. They needed to move as the charactersthey were portraying. Their reactions, their facial expressions, all needed tofurther the audiences understanding of their character. This requiredin-depth script readings and analysis of character motivations, just as adirector would insist on for his or her actors. De Mille realised that this canreally help the dancer. Whereas in ballet the dancer has to rely on what theyfeel to give the dance energy and dynamism, they now had the singing and actingto give them background and motivation to help give their dancing, as thesecharacters, expressive movement (24). If the role of dance in Oklahomawas to communicate dramatic meaning to the audience, and to further the plot,the dancer had to become the character, and know it inside-out.AsDe Mill e herself notes, it was Anthony Tudor who first shocked audiences intoviewing a ballet dancer as an individual capable of dramatic communicationthrough her body, by tog them in long Edwardian dresses (25). No longerwas the ballet dancer the stylised, ordinary image that made it accep tabularise forwomen to bare their legs and arms and wrap their limbs or so a man. She wasnow familiar like their mothers and aunties. They could now communicate humantruths and take part in the telling of a story. Dressed as the characters of aSouth-western town, rather than tights and a tutu, the audience was able to seethe dancers as humans with a story to tell.Thecrowning glory of De Milles choreography on Oklahoma was without doubtthe vision-ballet which occurs at the end of Act 1. With this De Milleexperimented with something entirely new in musical theatre, and for many yearsto come barely a musical was made without it containing a dream ballet. Inthis broaden ballet Laurie acts out her quand ary through dance a highlyimaginative method of moving the story forward. Dance was inextricably boundto the plot of the musical. Whereas in previous musicals dance was merely aside entertainment and could be cut without the story losing any of itsmeaning, one could not take the dream ballet out of Oklahoma withoutruining the plot. By using dance the thoughts and feelings in the mind and theheart of Laurie could be conveyed and explored far more effectively thanthrough straight dialogue. The dances were intended to strengthen theaudiences understanding of the characters and further the plot, as well ascomplement the lyrics and the dialogue, and it worked. Now, as well as singingand acting, dancing added to the dramatic impact of the musical on theaudience.AsKislan notes, dance also adds to the important theme of open space in Oklahoma.It is the guiding metaphor for the previse of the American Dream and the interminable opportunities for the brand new state the lovers are doom toli ve in (26). The audience is always aware of the physical space on stage asthe dancers never seem crowded, no matter how many take away the space. In thedream ballet Curly lifts Laurie up in the air, reaching for the sky, and theballetic style danced in constantly opens the body up, extending arms and legsto give the impression of limitless space. In Dance to the Piper DeMille writes of the sense of space ballet dancers work with Every joint andsinew is pulled long, the arms are wide and free the reach up and out,the liberating jump, the racing over and away from the earth (27). Thefeeling of space conveyed on stage through dance complements the songs, withlyrics such as plenty of room to swing a rope/plenty of heart and plenty ofhope (28).Atlast dance as more than an accessory, but as a serious art form, had arrivedonto the popular stage, and the audience were roaring. They were howling.People hadnt seen girls and boys dance like this in so long. Of course, theyhad been dancing li ke this, but not just where this audience could see them(29). maybe the most important accomplishment for dance in Oklahomawas that De Mille was a choreographer on the show, not a dance director. Thedifference being that dance directors worked for audience approvalchoreographers work for audience enlightenment (30). Her dances were integralto the story they added and enlightened rather than decorated. This was anew role for dance in musical theatre.DeMille went on to choreograph the dances for many more Broadway musicals in the1940s and 1950s, including One Touch of Venus in 1943, Carousel in 1945, Brigadoon in1947, Gentlemen Prefer Blondes in 1949, and Paint Your Wagon in1951. Tally-Ho(1944) and FallRiver fiction (1948) provided her with the opportunity to further herrevolutionary style. She continued to cast dancers that were skilled at projectingcharacter as well as performing the correct steps. Kislan records that dancersthat worked with De Mille have testified to her fantast ic powerfulness to sense eventhe smallest dramatic quality in their dancing, and, together, manage to set itfree and integrate it into the choreography so that the dance is alwaysexpressive of the drama (31).De Mille was still responsible to the director, the lyricist andthe author of the book though. Her choreography had to fit the other elementsof the musical, and dance was often of secondary importance to those elements.Choreographers such as Jerome Robbins were to change the role of thechoreographer, and frankincense the role of dance in musical theatre, forever. Banishedwas the mindless aesthetics that enslaved dance to the colossal, opulent, andlavish needs of the producer, the star, or the specialty act (32). Dance wasto be give the highest status of the production. The choreographer was torule the show. Indeed, the choreographer would no longer be merely the dancecreator, but the director-choreographer the dance-director follows, thechoreographer adapts, but the director-c horeographer leads (32). JeromeRobbins was a pioneer of this change in status for the role of dance in musicaltheatre.Jerome RobbinsRobbinswas born into a devoutly Jewish family in 1918, but resented being Jewish, withits conservatism and old ways. His large family, however, provided him withmany theatrical contacts and influences. His uncle, Jack Silverman, startedout as a ballroom dancer with the two men he was active with, Bing Crosby andGeorge Raft. Edward G. Robinson was also related, and another of Robbinsuncles, Daniel Davenport, owned a chain of vaudeville and take-off theatres.Davenports father and his brother performed on the vaudeville circuit underthe name of the Davenport Brothers, present acrobatic acts. It is to this partof the family that Robbins owes his zest for vaudeville-comedy.Robbinsparents ensured that both their children were educated in the arts, and this iswhere Jerome shone. He cut it as an escape route, a way by which he could haveaccess to the possib ilities which lay beyond his community When I was a childart seemed like a tunnel to me. At the end of that tunnel, I could see lightwhere the world opened up, waiting for me (33). Both he and his sister,Sonia, were strongly encouraged by their mother to calculate to the stage. Soniatook dance lessons and Jerome music lessons, and by the time he was three and ahalf he was composing pieces and giving recitals on the piano. Indeed, heexcelled in anything creative that he tried, but admitted that this wasbecause, the only world that was really exciting for me was the world in whichI could make believe that things were not the way they were (33). The worldof musical theatre was therefore the complete(a) world for him, later, to live in.Robbinshad to keep his love of dance a mysterious from his parents, especially his father,and his school friends, who were all into sports. As his sister danced her wayinto the spotlight Jerome was odd practicing in private, often with the helpof Son ia. At the Weehawken schools he attended Robbins performed in manyschool plays, but it was at his spend camps that he fell in love with Gilbertand Sullivan musicals, and played the comic leads in HMS Pinafore, TheMikado, and Pirates of Penzance. Jeromes knack for comedy was madeevident through his performances in these roles. A fellow camper latercommented, Jerry had a tremendous sense of humour in everything he did (34).He still kept his dancing a secret though. At one parents day at the camphowever, Robbins performed a dance on the table-tennis table and, as anothercamper remembers, had the adults in tears. Furthermore, This was a bigaudience and he was completely uninhibited (34).Robbinseventually took dance lessons with Sonias dance teacher in modern dance, theform that was the emerging trend in the Depression years of the 1930s, whenpeople wanted a dance form that could more readily express the social realismsof the time than could ballet. Jerome witnessed many pioneering grea ts of thedance stage, such as Martha Graham, Charles Weidman, and Doris Humphrey, but in1932 he was to meet the man he would later call his guru, Gluck Sandor (35).Sandor directed, choreographed and danced in many of the productions staged atthe Dance Centre, at which Sonia danced. He worked in vaudeville and onBroadway in the 1920s and was a tremendously expressive dancer, manipulatingevery gesture for dramatic effect, which was to a have profound influence onRobbins future work. As Robbins himself has cited, We dancers were taught toperform with the concentration of an actor (36). Anzia Kubicek, a dancer,remembers that Sandor, preferred to do things with a story line hisimagination would just go a mile a minute, and he worked with the bodies he hadto work with, which were sometimes very limited (37). Robbins would work withboth principles in his choreography, starting with a story from which hisdancers could develop their characters, and therefore their movements.Aftergraduating f rom Woodrow Wilson High School in 1935 Robbins entered New YorkUniversity to study Chemistry, but in his second year his fathers corsetbusiness was in danger of going bankrupt and he could no longer fullyfinancially support Jeromes education. Jerome was by this point desperate todrop out and follow his dream of becoming a professional dancer and, throughhis sister, he managed to successfully audition for an apprenticeship withSandors company. With the help of Sandor, Jerome convinced his parents tolet him try to make it as dancer, and he leftover the university. Sandor persuadedan unconvinced Robbins to concentrate on ballet rather than modern dance but itwasnt until he saw Alexandra Danilova perform with the Ballet Russes that Robbinsagreed that ballet held many opportunities for him. Jerome progressed quicklyand Sandor recognised him as a natural dancer, recalling years laterOncehe saw something, he could do it backward. Before I would do a thing he had it.He could anticipate wha t was to come. He was sensitive and he was musical. (38)In1937 Robbins secured his first part in The Brothers Ashkenazi, whichintensified his passion for the theatre. Throughout its run he would practiceon the barre, much to the perplexity of the Yiddish cast of the play. Hisfellow performers recall him constantly dancing (39). After two years trainingat the Dance Centre, and having procured roles in various plays, Robbins leftthe company in search of more commercial work. He found work in the chorus ofa number of musicals which, in the thirties, were largely comic. AlthoughRobbins went on to choreograph and dance in such musicals, he also wanted totake the medium further, and use musical theatre as a vehicle for explorationinto the human psyche. He would later say, Musicals tend to be facetious. Noone has ever used them as a medium to shew deep personal struggle, and Ithink this can be done (40). He would go on to do just that.Aswell as his brief encounters with Broadway, in the summer of 1937 Robbins startedworking as part of the entertainment staff at Camp Tamiment, a summer job hewould have for five years. The resort played armament to many up-and-comingtalents, such as Danny Kaye, Imogene Coca, and Carol Channing. It was avirtual breeding ground for musicians, comedians, singers and dancers. Robbinschoreographed and danced in many of the performances held in the social hall.It was a very creative atmosphere, with new productions performed every week.Max Lieberman, director of the entertainment program at Tamiment, strove forBroadway-quality pieces, and with only a week to create and rehearse each one,ideas had to flow. Robbins work was of two extremes humbug sketches onthe one hand and socially serious dramatic dances such as Strange Fruit andDeath of a Loyalist on the other. Some of his pieces were performed atthe 92nd way YMHA, under the auspices of the Theatre ArtsCommittee, as well as in the Straw Hat Revue, which Tamiment opened onBroadway in 193 9. The revue was an amalgamation of many of the sketchesperformed at that summers camp but, due to the sensitive atmosphere followingthe outbreak of war in Europe, they were only allowed to include the comedysketches. Robbins suffered a huge blow to his swelled head when Jerome Andrews, who hadbeen brought in by the backers to supervise the dances, was given sole crediton the billing for the choreography. It did however give him a determinationto be wholly in charge of

Personnel Department Effectiveness and Functions

strength section enduringness and Functions2.1 INTRODUCTIONThe potential of any(prenominal) organic law in general, is a develop function of the objet dart of the privates who make up that coiffurement. The k at a timeledge, dexteritys, abilities, and commitment of the members of the geological organiseation unneurotic constitute the virtu anyy critical factor in the festering and carrying erupt of lend plans and the sales pitch of products and services. With bring out the full commitment of its employees, an geological formation stand non accomplish its objectives. Consequently, the attr go through, organization, surviveledge and motivating of employees which is the force-out discussion section function of counseling ar a primal account big businessman at solely directs of attention that is from the chief executive to the graduation line supervisor.2.2 WHAT IS force MANAGEMENT? t here atomic keep down 18 many definitions of force-out anx iety, except all sanctionedally say that it is attracting and ontogeny adequate employees and creating the organisational conditions which result in their full utilization and encour sequences them to put forth their dress hat efforts.1In any organization, in that respect has to be some peerless bear on with the upbeat and per engineerance of someones who be a part of the operation. When an one-on-one or a team of individuals outputs on this parturiency of seeing to programs and setting policies that impact everyone associated with the company, they be engaged in the m experienced of force focus, sometimes referred to as clement alternatives prudence,According to F social posturelin A., violence management is based on c arful treatment of dealinghips among individuals at conniption and is the art of forecasting, acquiring, developing and maintaining competent conkforce so that the organization derives utmost benefit in terminuss of f beance and efficienc y.2 power Management is that part of management which is concerned with, populate at work and their relationship inwardly the organization. It can withal be defined as that aspect of an organization, which is concerned with ingesting the lift out possible faculty for the origination, looking aft(prenominal) them so fountainhead that they lead like to remain in the organization and give dour their better in their personal line of credits. It has to do with how best to aim the skills and intelligence of heap towards the achievement of organizational objectives.3From the definitions quoted by various management experts in the prehistoric or present, the inference that we derive is that forcefulness management aims at attaining maximum efficiency and to yield maximum benefits to the organization.Two study points active effect management argon implied in this definition. First, in force(p) violence management mustiness(prenominal) be proximo oriented. Suppor t for organizational objectives now and for the foresee up to(p) future must be rund through a loyal supply of competent and capable employees. Second, effective power management is serve oriented. The emphasis must be placed on solution of physical exercise issues and problems to support organizational objectives and facilitate employee developing and satisfactionTo sum up, force management aims at achieving these major cadencesAnalyzing the plan for future action and expansion.Estimating the quantitative and qualitative aspects of labor party.Assessing the requirement of existing manpower or com disco biscuitionate re credit.Formulating the plan for effective utilization of manpower, reducing under utilization or mis-utilization of manpower which is one of the most historic resources.Finalizes the planning for figurement, choice, at workion, carry, genteelness and development.organisational effectivenesBasically force out management has received goals and obje ctives to ful make which overwhelmsCreating a satisfying and healthy surround for employees or actors to function effectively.To bring to the higher(prenominal)(prenominal)est degree organizational and human resource development through readiness, development programmes or eve theatre directorial period planning. alternative and organisation of regene vagabond field number of slew and ensuring graceful parceling of duties and responsibilities upon them.Creating better inter-personal relations, developing a sense of responsibility and responsiveness amongst workers and employees.Boosting the morale and sense of initiative amongst employees.Adopting best techniques or presumable modes to bring best possible development of workers on work.2.2.1 Functions of the Personnel DepartmentA headspring-organized force play office department of an organization performs the fol milding functions. Typically personnel work is concerned withi. Manpower Planning This is the first function of the personnel department. It has to do with the help by which a firm ensures that the required lag in wrong of cogency and number is ready(prenominal) at the unspoilt time. It involves find personnel postulate in relations to the objectives of the organization. It accordingly deals with the capability or education, skills and the hold number of personnel a firm should engage. It is in that locationfore the appendage of assessing, predicting, or forecasting an organizations manpower engages in a relation to its plans.ii. drill/Recruitment After the manpower removes of the organization ready been posed, the fol sufferinging(a) leg is the make an attempt to employ the right caliber of personnel into the organization. This involves identifying sources of labour supply, carrying out enlisting, cream and placement into the organization.iii. raising/ reading and using The personnel department is obligated for the tuition, education and the develop ment of employees. It is the training needs have been determined, it is the responsibility of the department to design an assign programme by determining the method to be utilize, the course content, the date and the institution or person to conduct the training. Training enables employees to adjust to freshly trends, improve their movement on the sub go and prepargon them for advance.iv. net and net in father ecesis Wage and salary Administration is one of the important functions of the personnel department. It is responsible for intention equitable and attractive net income and salary schemes for employees in an organization. It as well determines how overtime conciliatements. Bon mathematical functions and recent(prenominal) fringe benefits are to be paid. It is besides responsible for appraise the labour market and making the indispensable changes and adjustments to the wage and salary structures to hypothesize the wages and salaries policies of the governm ent of the day.v. Health, Safety and Welfare of transaction- An new(prenominal) important function of the Personnel department is to ensure that there are totals to score care of the health, safety and eudaimonia of its employees. It ensures these by providing first-aid facilities, faithful ventilation, lighting, drainage and proper working(a)(a) conditions. It withal delivers protective gadgets for employees to reduce the accompaniment of accidents and injuries. Canteen, sports, transport, pension schemes, concourse insurance schemes and other recreational programmmes are provided for the wellbeing of its employees.vi. Industrial transaction The personnel department plays an important role in maintaining a neighborly and harmonium working relationship surrounded by workers and management. The term industrial relations are utilise to describe the relationship that exists between employers, employees (trade unions) and the government.Performance estimate organizing the appraisal service to identify development needs of employees.Personnel disposal record-keeping and monitoring of legislative requirements related to equal opportunities and perhaps pensions and tax.Communication providing an familiar schooling service, perhaps in the form of mental faculty sensitivespapers or magazines, handouts, booklets, videos.2.3 economic consumption PROCESSThe physical exercise process which is as well as referred to as the enlisting process involves a number of activities which are undertaken to engage the right caliber of personnel for an organization. It is so concerned with the use and maintenance of commensurate and efficient labour force. trade thence involves enterment, woof and placement. The recruitment and selection process involves recruitment, interrelate activities which ac knowledge the fol woefuling.2.3.1 RECRUITMENTIt is the process of acquiring applicators who are available and adapted to adopt positions in the orga nization.1 Recruitment refers to the first step in staffing, which is purpose lot.2 root systems of recruitment refer to the various avenues from which the personnel motorcoach whitethorn recruit or employ labour. Recruits are obtained from a revolution of sources. in that location source are divided into ii main categories, to wit infixed and external sources. Pieter Grobler (page 167) character references of RecruitmentInternal SourceSources of authorisation panoramas are many and varied, but a satisfactory starting point is to dispense any internal scenes who might be adequate for the post. The exercise whereby the required manpower is obtained in spite of visual aspect the organization is the internal source. This whitethorn take the form of promoting a certifiable worker to a laid- prickleer position as they occur.Advantages of Internal SourceThere is less adventure of wrongdoing in selection and placementIt boosts the morale of employees and encourages t hem it work hardIt is quicker, cheaper and less unassured than an out-of-door fightThe recruit fits in with the culture of the organization he knows how we do things hereThe individual also knows the people, systems and the personal credit line and then the stimulus generalisation period entrust be quickerDis values of Internal SourceNo natural themes, creative thinking or challenge to the culture and systemsIt tends to ignore do candidates who are not in spite of appearance the systemA post entrust still need filling-the persons old post. That is he will create some other vacancyThe person whitethorn not be the best, qualify or most able candidateExternal SourceDepending on management policy and the guinea pig of rent out involved. Management has a number of options available for obtaining people from extracurricular the organization. These complicateEducational Institutions Organization and companies sometimes recruit fresh graduates from schools, colleges, poly technics and the universities. snobbish Employment Agencies Employers who cannot go through the process of recruitment engage consulting firms to do the recruitment for them. mash Department this is a humans agency implant in almost all regional scapitals where employees in search of practice session and employers searching for employees go to register. An arrangement is then do to link the employer with the future employee.Advertisements This is the most putting surface and popular source of external recruitment where companies portend their piece of work opportunities through the impertinentlyspapers, magazines, journals, radio and television.Unsolicited applicator People who are seeking for labors sometimes apply to organizations without being cognizant of vacancies in those organizations. If there are vacancies, the applicant whitethorn be asked to go through the natural covering process. Where vacancies are not immediately available, his name will be placed on the waiting list.Employment Referrals- Companies sometime make cognise theorize vacancies to their staff and ask them to recommend friends, relatives and neighbours who might be in need of employment and possess the required qualification and skill.Advantages of External SourceIt leads to the employment of people with new knowledge and ideasIt leads to the employment of dependent and adapted people to fill vacant postsIt promotes good willIts scope of selection is widenedDisadvantages of External SourcesIt is expensive and time consumingIt whitethorn lead to low morale e finically where there are qualified people in spite of appearance the organizationThe risk of making unlawful selection is very high2.3.2 JOB analytic thinkingIt is the determination of the essential characteristics of a romp. It is therefore a process of determining the nature of the farm out and the skills, knowledge, experiences and abilities of the person who is supposed to perform the crease. It th erefore contains information such as task performed, machines and equipment to be employ, materials, products or services involved, training skills, knowledge and personal traits required of the worker. parentage digest therefore describes some(prenominal) the worker and the play so that there are no questions close who is doing what within the firm. Franklin A. (page 156)When undertaken carefully, job analysis could be utilize toIt provides the information necessary for recruitment, selection and placement of employees.It can be apply to get an idea of the acceptable level of performance for each job (performance appraisal)It is utilise to plait and implement training and development programmesIt provides an fortune to get out and identify speculative conditionsJobs may be analyzed in frame to ensure that employees are fairly compensatedThe components of job analysis include.A. Job descriptionIt specifies the duties and requirements of the job. This is a broad stat ement describing the purpose, scope, duties and responsibilities of a token job. It states the denomination and location of the hob, storey/salary level of the job, limits of authority, number of subordinates, physical working conditions, machines, tools and equipment use, product or service produced and so forth it typically portrays job content. In short, it summarizes all the rudimentary tasks that are required to be performed on a job. A job description is what the worker does. Franklin A. (page 167)Importance of Job DescriptionEach employee gets to know what is expected of him. It upholds to avoid overlapping.It helps determine the rate of pay which is fair for the job.It helps in appraising and training employeesIt makes it possible for new employees to be granted taste with regards to their duties and responsibilities.It provides information from which exceptional hob vacancies can be advertisedIt guides the personnel director in the development of job conditionSELE CTIONThis is the process by which an organization chooses from a list/ kitty-cat of applicants the person who best invites the job and organizational requirements. The main objective of the selection process is to configuration out those judged qualified for the job.(a) Selection Procedurei. natural coverings programme FormsApplicants who reply to job advertisements are commonly asked to fill in a job practical act form, or to send a letter cock-a-hoop details somewhat themselves and their previous job experience (Curriculum Vitae or (C.V). An application form is used to find out relevant information more or less the applicant. It tells the organization whether or not an applicant is worthy of an inter suck or a psychometric tally of some kind. Information usually required of candidates include Personal data, educational background, work experience, date of birth, avocations and hobbies. An applicant who is deemed suitable on this evidence becomes a candidate for intervi ew.ii. Application Screening (Short-listing)The screening stage involves the sorting out or elimination of those applicants judged unqualified for the job. The personnel manager receives the filled application forms, and then screens them to determine those who are qualified to be invited for interview. This becomes necessary since all eccentric persons of applications are received when jobs are advertised. This stage is also referred to as short-listing. It is do by marching all the applications against the employers requirements.iii. Selection TestsSelection tests are used to supplement other techniques. The tests are usually handled by fully qualified industrial psychologists. It is a practical examination to determine whether an applicant is suitable for the job. The assumption behind the administration of the tests is that a candidate who scores well in the test will more seeming succeed in the job.Types of testThe types of tests commonly used include-i. news show Tests T heir aim is to broadside the applicants general intellectual ability. That is they are knowing to measure his thinking abilities. They may test the applicants memory, ability to think quickly and logically, and skill at answer problems.ii. Aptitude Tests These are intentional to predict an individuals potential for performing a job or attainment new skills. They are widely used to obtain information somewhat such skills as mechanical ability, clerical and numerical ability. It measures a persons ability to do something devoted a good training.iii. Psychological tests Psychological tests may measure a variety of characteristics such as an applicants skill in dealing with other people, ambition and indigence or emotional stability. They usually consist of questionnaires enquire respondents to state their interest in or preference for jobs, leisure activities etc. progression Tests Proficiency tests are the most closely related test to an assessors objectives, because they mea sure ability to do the work involvediv. medical examination Tests Medical tests are carried out to determine the physical fitness of the applicant and whether he has any unavowed diseases. Candidates who might have contagious diseases will be rejected.INTERVIEW hearing is a conversation or verbal fundamental interaction between two or more people for a particular purpose. Interviewing is a life-or-death part of the selection process because it gives the organization an hazard to assess the applicant directly, and it gives the applicant an opportunity to learn more about the organization and whether he or she wants the jobObjectives of InterviewIt gives the employer an opportunity to obtain information about each applicant and to assess his suitability for the job.It enables the employer to cross-check the applicants original documents or educational securitys.It enables the employer to have a critical view of the physical appearance of the applicantIt also gives him an opportu nity to determine the applicants level of intelligence.It provides the applicant an opportunity to know more about the organization, the job and the employees of the organization.References (Background Investigations)References provide further secret information about the prospective employee. Prospective candidates are normally asked to succumb references who can be contacted when the need arises. Such references include schools, colleges, universities, former employers (if any) and relatives. The use of reference compels employees to be honest in render information about themselves to an organization. References are brief statements about a candidate made by a third party usually the candidates ranking(a). These statements are used to reassert information supplied by applicants on application forms. spotThis is the stage where the new employee is placed on the job. He is assigned to an police officer and a prize if he is a clerical worker. It is the responsibility of the sup erior to give the new employee in-service training where necessary and to provide a agenda of duties.evocationThis may be conducted by the personnel manager and it is the process of orientating the selected applicant into his or her new working environment. It takes the form of introducing new employees to existing staff, visits to the plants and other departments, informing him/her about his duties and responsibilities, as well as the policies and objective of the organization. Induction simply room the introduction of a new employee into his or her job or organizationJob ChangesThe post recruitment functions of the personnel manager includes modifys, advancements, demotions and termination.i. Transfers-This occurs when employees have been assigned to another(prenominal) branch, department or to another job involving similar responsibilities, skills and remuneration. The transfer could be from one department to another or one station to another. It may be used to correct an erro r made during the recruitment process.Reasons for transfersThe close down of a branch or department may call for a transferSelf signal by an employee because of his inability to relate well with co-workers of leave out of interest in his job or for purposes of frequent medical check-ups collectible to sickness.Transfer may be used as a penalisation deviceA person may also be transferred to take up a new appointmentA fall in the level of yield may also hire the re-allocation of employees.ii. forward motion promotion may be defined as the transfer of an employee from one job to another which involves a great responsibility and usually a high reward (pay). In other words, it involves a change in locating and usually symbolises appointment to a higher grade with greater and more repugn responsibilities. It is an important aspect of management because it is through promotion that a worker obtains satisfaction and shows his desire to advance and develop.Promotion polityMany ba nging organizations have a policy of filling superior job positions from within the organization. Others also believe in recruitment from outside the organization. Every organization should however come out with a induce policy on promotion so that employees know in advance the criteria to be used in promotion. Normally promotion is based on the following longevity (length of service)Practical ability (skill)General attitude and faithfulnessEducation and qualificationPersonality or characterAdvantages of PromotionPromotion improves morale and motivation of employees in the organization.Promotion helps reduce labour-turn over in an organizationIt is seen as a reward for dedicated service, hard work, truth and obedience to rules and regulations of the organization. picturesque promotions create a feeling of content among employees and keep back their interest in the company.It helps employees to put in extra effort to help attain organizational objectivesIt improves the earning p ower and status of the employeesProblems of promotionmore qualified employees may be ignored or overlookedan employee adjudged competent when promoted may perform on a lower floor expectationqualified personnel when overlooked in time of promotion may feel dejected and unrecognized. This may propel his morale and for that thing his overall performance.A worker who has a special interest in his/her job e.g. cashier in a pecuniary institution may refuse to accept promotion.iii. DemotionIt is the decline in rank of an employee or the transfer of an employee to jobs with lower ranks backed by a decrement in salary. It therefore refers to a decrease in status as well as remuneration.Reasons For DemotionFailure on the part of employees to live up to expectation (poor performance) sedate crime against the organization example pilfering, fraud, leaking, organizational secrets to the advantage of competitors etc.It can also be based on indiscipline or un-American to rules of the organ izationSerious or unfavourable business conditions may necessitate lay-offs and termination some employees may accept demotion as an alternative.Problems of Demotionit leads to reduction employee status and remunerationit also creates morale problems for affected employees. nigh affected employees may resign, leading to labour turn over and its associated problems,iv. grind TURN all over push turn over refers to the rate at which employees are release the business organization at a particular time and their replacement. It therefore describes the movement of workers into and out of employment of an organization in a in a assumption period of timeIt is cypher byL x 100AWhereL = Those go away during the yearA = Average number employed during the year orAverage number on the companys payroll within that period.A high (index) labour derangement means more people leave the employment because of low morale. It could also mean a high proportion of the employment of women or scholars who have returned to college to pursue academic careers, death, pension etc.Causes of Labour Turn everywhereThere are various causes of labour turn-over. Among them include the following discontentment (dissatisfaction) among employees as a result of poor working conditions, omit of promotional avenues miserable leadership styleVery colossal hours of work with footling time for restUnfairness and improper administration of disciplinary measuresPoor wages and salariesLack of opportunities for self advancementBoredom, wrong job subsidization or lack of job satisfactionLack of opportunity to sway opinions to management and to participate in conclusion making.Problems of Labour Turn all overIt brings about extra-expenditure, that is hiring and training of new employeesProduction rate is decreased and this tend to affect the volume of ales and profit marginsIt leads to overtime honorarium for extra man-hours dog-tired on the jobThe money spent on training developing employees w ho have left goes down the drainThere could be low morale for the remaining employees due to loss of old work duet and friendsIt takes a lot of time for workers to properly fall down or fit into the systemSolution To the causes of labour turnoverA study or research should be conducted to identify which factors have been the cause of dissatisfaction and that have been responsible for the labour turnover. The following suggested solutions could be applied by individual companies.i. Companies should provide attractive wages and salaries to ensure that employees are to a higher place to meet their basic necessities.ii. There should also be improvement in the working conditions of workers. protective clothes, canteen, transport, housing and medical facilities should be provided to cater for the welfare of workers.iii. There should also be opportunities for growth and development for employees, e.g study leave, furnish of library facilities, promotion etc.iv. Joint consultation must be buildd to enable representatives of workers and employers meet to identify common problems and find solutions to them.2.4 Termination of EmploymentEvery employer has the option to terminate the employment of his employees but only on the grounds that authorized conditions are meet e.g. giving of appropriate wag and payment of entitlements. Employees also have an option to resign from their present job and look for another provided they also satisfy certain conditions e.g. appropriate brand and proper handing over. There are ways by which a contract of employment may be terminated and they include redundancy, dismissals, retirement and resignation.2.4.1 diffusenessThis is a particular where employees are asked to leave their employment because of lack of work. that is, the organization does not need their service any longer. Therefore when there is reduction in deed and the workers are greater than what the organization needs, some are asked to leave employment.2.4.2 dismi ssalDismissal is an act of sending an employee away form his employment because be is not qualified, undisciplined or is dishonest in his work. It is the permanent climb-down of an employee from the services of a company.2.4.3 RetirementIt is the act of unemotional or having halt working after attaining a certain age. The age may all be contained in the companys policy or decision taken by the individual himself.2.4.4 giving upResignation usually comes from employees. Resignation is the indication by the employee that he has ceased to be in the employment of the employer.2.4.5 unload OffThis is a temporary withdrawal of employees from work due to shortfall of raw materials, low demand for the companies products or services, or financial problems. These employees may be called back when the need arises. When conditions improve and some of the aid-off workers are invited to come back to work, it is known as recall.2.5 EDUCATION, TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT2.5.1 EducationThis is usu ally intended to mean basic instructions in knowledge and skills designed to enable people make the most life in general. It is thus a process of training and instructing people in schools, colleges, Polytechnics, universities etc. which is designed to give knowledge and development of skills. At the end of the course, a certificate is given to those who pass their final examination. Education is therefore more personal and broadly based.2.5.2 teachingThis suggests a broader view of knowledge and skills acquisition instead than training. It is less job-oriented and career-oriented. It sees employees as adaptable resources and thus concerned with preparing individuals with skills and experience to fill challenging higher level positions in the organization.2.5.3 TrainingTraining is job oriented kind of than personal. Training involves a series of actions aimed at preparing an individual with skills to do a particular job. It may be defined as the systematic development of the atti tudes, knowledge and skill patterns required by an individual in night club to perform adequately a given task or jobMethods of TrainingThe main methods of training includei. Apprenticeship TrainingThis is a method of training where the apprentice under studies his earn for a number of years, learning all the basic skills involved in the profession. This type of training is given to young people who have either correct school or who have not been to school. This type of training is common and popular in professions like tailoring, dressmaking, carpentry, driving and masonry. The apprentice pays a certain amount to his master and he is not paid during the period of his/her training but given allowance as and when necessary by his/her master.ii. supervisory TrainingThis type of training is give to employees who have been appointed supervisors or foremen. Supervisory training involves the teaching of supervisors or foremen the skill of getting work done through others. It is therefo re meant to improve on their leadership skills and qualities. It takes place in an institute in the form of seminars or workshops with discussions on leadership, morale, development, directing, and health and safety measures.iii. administrator TrainingPersonnel in middle management and top management positions are covered under this typePersonnel Department Effectiveness and FunctionsPersonnel Department Effectiveness and Functions2.1 INTRODUCTIONThe effectiveness of any organization in general, is a direct function of the quality of the individuals who make up that organization. The knowledge, skills, abilities, and commitment of the members of the organization together constitute the most critical factor in the development and implementation of work plans and the delivery of products and services. Without the full commitment of its employees, an organization cannot accomplish its objectives. Consequently, the attraction, organization, development and motivation of employees which is the personnel function of management are a central responsibility at all levels of management that is from the chief executive to the first line supervisor.2.2 WHAT IS PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT?There are many definitions of personnel management, but all basically say that it is attracting and developing competent employees and creating the organizational conditions which result in their full utilization and encourages them to put forth their best efforts.1In any organization, there has to be someone concerned with the welfare and performance of persons who are a part of the operation. When an individual or a team of individuals takes on this task of seeing to programs and setting policies that impact everyone associated with the company, they are engaged in the process of personnel management, sometimes referred to as human resources management,According to Franklin A., personnel management is based on careful handling of relationships among individuals at work and is the art of fore casting, acquiring, developing and maintaining competent workforce so that the organization derives maximum benefit in terms of performance and efficiency.2Personnel Management is that part of management which is concerned with, people at work and their relationship within the organization. It can also be defined as that aspect of an organization, which is concerned with obtaining the best possible staff for the origination, looking after them so well that they will like to remain in the organization and give off their best in their jobs. It has to do with how best to use the skills and intelligence of people towards the achievement of organizational objectives.3From the definitions quoted by various management experts in the past or present, the inference that we derive is that personnel management aims at attaining maximum efficiency and to yield maximum benefits to the organization.Two major points about personnel management are implied in this definition. First, effective person nel management must be future oriented. Support for organizational objectives now and for the foreseeable future must be provided through a steady supply of competent and capable employees. Second, effective personnel management is action oriented. The emphasis must be placed on solution of employment issues and problems to support organizational objectives and facilitate employee development and satisfactionTo sum up, Personnel management aims at achieving these major stepsAnalyzing the plan for future action and expansion.Estimating the quantitative and qualitative aspects of labour.Assessing the requirement of existing manpower or human resource.Formulating the plan for effective utilization of manpower, reducing under utilization or mis-utilization of manpower which is one of the most important resources.Finalizes the planning for recruitment, selection, promotion, transfer, training and development.Organizational effectivenesBasically Personnel management has certain goals and objectives to fulfill which includesCreating a congenial and healthy environment for employees or workers to function effectively.To bring about organizational and human resource development through training, development programmes or even managerial succession planning.Selection and placement of right number of people and ensuring proper allocation of duties and responsibilities upon them.Creating better inter-personal relations, developing a sense of responsibility and responsiveness amongst workers and employees.Boosting the morale and sense of initiative amongst employees.Adopting best techniques or conceivable methods to bring best possible development of workers on work.2.2.1 Functions of the Personnel DepartmentA well-organized personnel department of an organization performs the following functions. Typically personnel work is concerned withi. Manpower Planning This is the first function of the personnel department. It has to do with the process by which a firm ensures that the required staff in terms of qualification and number is available at the right time. It involves determining personnel needs in relations to the objectives of the organization. It therefore deals with the qualification or education, skills and the appropriate number of personnel a firm should engage. It is therefore the process of assessing, predicting, or forecasting an organizations manpower needs in a relation to its plans.ii. Employment/Recruitment After the manpower needs of the organization have been determined, the next stage is the make an attempt to employ the right caliber of personnel into the organization. This involves identifying sources of labour supply, carrying out recruitment, selection and placement into the organization.iii. Education/Training and Development The personnel department is responsible for the training, education and the development of employees. It is the training needs have been determined, it is the responsibility of the department to design an appropriate programme by determining the method to be used, the course content, the duration and the institution or person to conduct the training. Training enables employees to adjust to new trends, improve their performance on the job and prepare them for promotion.iv. Wage and salary administration Wage and salary Administration is one of the important functions of the personnel department. It is responsible for designing equitable and attractive wage and salary schemes for employees in an organization. It also determines how overtime payments. Bonuses and other fringe benefits are to be paid. It is also responsible for surveying the labour market and making the necessary changes and adjustments to the wage and salary structures to reflect the wages and salaries policies of the government of the day.v. Health, Safety and Welfare of Employment- Another important function of the Personnel department is to ensure that there are measures to take care of the health, safety and we lfare of its employees. It ensures these by providing first-aid facilities, good ventilation, lighting, drainage and proper working conditions. It also provides protective gadgets for employees to reduce the occurrence of accidents and injuries. Canteen, sports, transport, pension schemes, group insurance schemes and other recreational programmmes are provided for the welfare of its employees.vi. Industrial Relations The personnel department plays an important role in maintaining a cordial and harmonium working relationship between workers and management. The term industrial relations are used to describe the relationship that exists between employers, employees (trade unions) and the government.Performance appraisal organizing the appraisal process to identify development needs of employees.Personnel administration record-keeping and monitoring of legislative requirements related to equal opportunities and possibly pensions and tax.Communication providing an internal informatio n service, perhaps in the form of staff newspapers or magazines, handouts, booklets, videos.2.3 EMPLOYMENT PROCESSThe employment process which is also referred to as the recruitment process involves a number of activities which are undertaken to engage the right caliber of personnel for an organization. It is therefore concerned with the employment and maintenance of qualified and efficient labour force. Employment therefore involves recruitment, selection and placement. The recruitment and selection process involves recruitment, interrelated activities which include the following.2.3.1 RECRUITMENTIt is the process of acquiring applicants who are available and qualified to fill positions in the organization.1 Recruitment refers to the first step in staffing, which is finding people.2 Sources of recruitment refer to the various avenues from which the personnel manager may recruit or employ labour. Recruits are obtained from a variety of sources. There source are divided into two main categories, namely internal and external sources. Pieter Grobler (page 167)Sources of RecruitmentInternal SourceSources of potential candidates are many and varied, but a good starting point is to consider any internal candidates who might be suitable for the post. The exercise whereby the required manpower is obtained within the organization is the internal source. This may take the form of promoting a qualified worker to a higher position as they occur.Advantages of Internal SourceThere is less risk of error in selection and placementIt boosts the morale of employees and encourages them it work hardIt is quicker, cheaper and less risky than an outside appointmentThe recruit fits in with the culture of the organization he knows how we do things hereThe individual also knows the people, systems and the business and thus the induction period will be quickerDisadvantages of Internal SourceNo new ideas, creativity or challenge to the culture and systemsIt tends to ignore qualified can didates who are not within the systemA post will still need filling-the persons old post. That is he will create another vacancyThe person may not be the best, qualified or most able candidateExternal SourceDepending on management policy and the type of job involved. Management has a number of options available for obtaining people from outside the organization. These includeEducational Institutions Organization and companies sometimes recruit fresh graduates from schools, colleges, polytechnics and the universities.Private Employment Agencies Employers who cannot go through the process of recruitment engage consulting firms to do the recruitment for them.Labour Department this is a public agency found in almost all regional scapitals where employees in search of employment and employers searching for employees go to register. An arrangement is then made to link the employer with the prospective employee.Advertisements This is the most common and popular source of external recru itment where companies announce their employment opportunities through the newspapers, magazines, journals, radio and television.Unsolicited Applicant People who are seeking for jobs sometimes apply to organizations without being aware of vacancies in those organizations. If there are vacancies, the applicant may be asked to go through the screening process. Where vacancies are not immediately available, his name will be placed on the waiting list.Employment Referrals- Companies sometime announce job vacancies to their staff and ask them to recommend friends, relatives and neighbours who might be in need of employment and possess the required qualification and skill.Advantages of External SourceIt leads to the employment of people with new knowledge and ideasIt leads to the employment of qualified and suitable people to fill vacant postsIt promotes good willIts scope of selection is widenedDisadvantages of External SourcesIt is costly and time consumingIt may lead to low morale pa rticularly where there are qualified people within the organizationThe risk of making wrong selection is very high2.3.2 JOB ANALYSISIt is the determination of the essential characteristics of a job. It is therefore a process of determining the nature of the job and the skills, knowledge, experiences and abilities of the person who is supposed to perform the job. It therefore contains information such as task performed, machines and equipment to be used, materials, products or services involved, training skills, knowledge and personal traits required of the worker. Job analysis therefore describes both the worker and the job so that there are no questions about who is doing what within the firm. Franklin A. (page 156)When undertaken carefully, job analysis could be used toIt provides the information necessary for recruitment, selection and placement of employees.It can be used to get an idea of the acceptable level of performance for each job (performance appraisal)It is used to devi ce and implement training and development programmesIt provides an opportunity to uncover and identify hazardous conditionsJobs may be analyzed in order to ensure that employees are fairly compensatedThe components of job analysis include.A. Job DescriptionIt specifies the duties and requirements of the job. This is a broad statement describing the purpose, scope, duties and responsibilities of a particular job. It states the title and location of the hob, grade/salary level of the job, limits of authority, number of subordinates, physical working conditions, machines, tools and equipment used, product or service produced etc. it typically portrays job content. In short, it summarizes all the basic tasks that are required to be performed on a job. A job description is what the worker does. Franklin A. (page 167)Importance of Job DescriptionEach employee gets to know what is expected of him. It helps to avoid overlapping.It helps determine the rate of pay which is fair for the job.It helps in appraising and training employeesIt makes it possible for new employees to be given orientation with regards to their duties and responsibilities.It provides information from which particular hob vacancies can be advertisedIt guides the personnel manager in the development of job specificationSELECTIONThis is the process by which an organization chooses from a list/pool of applicants the person who best meets the job and organizational requirements. The main objective of the selection process is to sort out those judged qualified for the job.(a) Selection Procedurei. Application FormsApplicants who reply to job advertisements are usually asked to fill in a job application form, or to send a letter giving details about themselves and their previous job experience (Curriculum Vitae or (C.V). An application form is used to find out relevant information about the applicant. It tells the organization whether or not an applicant is worthy of an interview or a test of some kind. Information usually required of candidates include Personal data, educational background, work experience, date of birth, interests and hobbies. An applicant who is deemed suitable on this evidence becomes a candidate for interview.ii. Application Screening (Short-listing)The screening stage involves the sorting out or elimination of those applicants judged unqualified for the job. The personnel manager receives the filled application forms, and then screens them to determine those who are qualified to be invited for interview. This becomes necessary since all types of applications are received when jobs are advertised. This stage is also referred to as short-listing. It is done by marching all the applications against the employers requirements.iii. Selection TestsSelection tests are used to supplement other techniques. The tests are usually handled by fully qualified industrial psychologists. It is a practical examination to determine whether an applicant is suitable for the job. The assumption behind the administration of the tests is that a candidate who scores well in the test will more likely succeed in the job.Types of testThe types of tests commonly used include-i. Intelligence Tests Their aim is to measure the applicants general intellectual ability. That is they are designed to measure his thinking abilities. They may test the applicants memory, ability to think quickly and logically, and skill at solving problems.ii. Aptitude Tests These are designed to predict an individuals potential for performing a job or learning new skills. They are widely used to obtain information about such skills as mechanical ability, clerical and numerical ability. It measures a persons ability to do something given a good training.iii. Psychological tests Psychological tests may measure a variety of characteristics such as an applicants skill in dealing with other people, ambition and motivation or emotional stability. They usually consist of questionnaires asking re spondents to state their interest in or preference for jobs, leisure activities etc.Proficiency Tests Proficiency tests are the most closely related test to an assessors objectives, because they measure ability to do the work involvediv. Medical Tests Medical tests are carried out to determine the physical fitness of the applicant and whether he has any hidden diseases. Candidates who might have contagious diseases will be rejected.INTERVIEWInterview is a conversation or verbal interaction between two or more people for a particular purpose. Interviewing is a crucial part of the selection process because it gives the organization an opportunity to assess the applicant directly, and it gives the applicant an opportunity to learn more about the organization and whether he or she wants the jobObjectives of InterviewIt gives the employer an opportunity to obtain information about each applicant and to assess his suitability for the job.It enables the employer to cross-check the applica nts original documents or educational certificates.It enables the employer to have a critical view of the physical appearance of the applicantIt also gives him an opportunity to determine the applicants level of intelligence.It provides the applicant an opportunity to know more about the organization, the job and the employees of the organization.References (Background Investigations)References provide further confidential information about the prospective employee. Prospective candidates are normally asked to submit references who can be contacted when the need arises. Such references include schools, colleges, universities, former employers (if any) and relatives. The use of reference compels employees to be honest in supplying information about themselves to an organization. References are brief statements about a candidate made by a third party usually the candidates superior. These statements are used to confirm information supplied by applicants on application forms.PlacementT his is the stage where the new employee is placed on the job. He is assigned to an officer and a superior if he is a clerical worker. It is the responsibility of the superior to give the new employee in-service training where necessary and to provide a schedule of duties.InductionThis may be conducted by the personnel manager and it is the process of orientating the selected applicant into his or her new working environment. It takes the form of introducing new employees to existing staff, visits to the plants and other departments, informing him/her about his duties and responsibilities, as well as the policies and objective of the organization. Induction simply means the introduction of a new employee into his or her job or organizationJob ChangesThe post recruitment functions of the personnel manager includes transfers, promotions, demotions and termination.i. Transfers-This occurs when employees have been assigned to another branch, department or to another job involving similar responsibilities, skills and remuneration. The transfer could be from one department to another or one station to another. It may be used to correct an error made during the recruitment process.Reasons for transfersThe close down of a branch or department may call for a transferSelf request by an employee because of his inability to relate well with co-workers of lack of interest in his job or for purposes of frequent medical check-ups due to sickness.Transfer may be used as a punishment deviceA person may also be transferred to take up a new appointmentA fall in the level of production may also necessitate the re-allocation of employees.ii. PromotionPromotion may be defined as the transfer of an employee from one job to another which involves a greater responsibility and usually a higher reward (pay). In other words, it involves a change in status and usually means appointment to a higher grade with greater and more challenging responsibilities. It is an important aspect of manage ment because it is through promotion that a worker obtains satisfaction and shows his desire to advance and develop.Promotion PolicyMany large organizations have a policy of filling senior job positions from within the organization. Others also believe in recruitment from outside the organization. Every organization should however come out with a clear policy on promotion so that employees know in advance the criteria to be used in promotion. Normally promotion is based on the followingSeniority (length of service)Practical ability (skill)General attitude and loyaltyEducation and qualificationPersonality or characterAdvantages of PromotionPromotion improves morale and motivation of employees in the organization.Promotion helps reduce labour-turn over in an organizationIt is seen as a reward for dedicated service, hard work, loyalty and obedience to rules and regulations of the organization.Fair promotions create a feeling of content among employees and retain their interest in the c ompany.It helps employees to put in extra effort to help attain organizational objectivesIt improves the earning power and status of the employeesProblems of promotionmore qualified employees may be ignored or overlookedan employee adjudged competent when promoted may perform below expectationqualified personnel when overlooked in time of promotion may feel dejected and unrecognized. This may affect his morale and for that matter his overall performance.A worker who has a special interest in his/her job e.g. cashier in a financial institution may refuse to accept promotion.iii. DemotionIt is the reduction in rank of an employee or the transfer of an employee to jobs with lower ranks backed by a reduction in salary. It therefore refers to a decrease in status as well as remuneration.Reasons For DemotionFailure on the part of employees to live up to expectation (poor performance)Serious crime against the organization example pilfering, fraud, leaking, organizational secrets to the adv antage of competitors etc.It can also be based on indiscipline or disloyal to rules of the organizationSerious or unfavourable business conditions may necessitate lay-offs and termination some employees may accept demotion as an alternative.Problems of Demotionit leads to reduction employee status and remunerationit also creates morale problems for affected employees.Some affected employees may resign, leading to labour turn over and its associated problems,iv. LABOUR TURN OVERLabour turn over refers to the rate at which employees are leaving the business organization at a particular time and their replacement. It therefore describes the movement of workers into and out of employment of an organization in a in a given period of timeIt is calculated byL x 100AWhereL = Those leaving during the yearA = Average number employed during the year orAverage number on the companys payroll within that period.A high (index) labour turnover means more people leave the employment because of low m orale. It could also mean a high proportion of the employment of women or scholars who have returned to college to pursue academic careers, death, pension etc.Causes of Labour Turn OverThere are various causes of labour turn-over. Among them include the followingDiscontentment (dissatisfaction) among employees as a result of poor working conditions,Lack of promotional avenuesPoor leadership styleVery long hours of work with little time for restUnfairness and improper administration of disciplinary measuresPoor wages and salariesLack of opportunities for self advancementBoredom, wrong job assignment or lack of job satisfactionLack of opportunity to express opinions to management and to participate in decision making.Problems of Labour Turn OverIt brings about extra-expenditure, that is hiring and training of new employeesProduction rate is decreased and this tend to affect the volume of ales and profit marginsIt leads to overtime payment for extra man-hours spent on the jobThe money spent on training developing employees who have left goes down the drainThere could be low morale for the remaining employees due to loss of old work mates and friendsIt takes a lot of time for workers to properly settle or fit into the systemSolution To the causes of labour turnoverA study or research should be conducted to identify which factors have been the cause of dissatisfaction and that have been responsible for the labour turnover. The following suggested solutions could be applied by individual companies.i. Companies should provide attractive wages and salaries to ensure that employees are above to meet their basic necessities.ii. There should also be improvement in the working conditions of workers. Protective clothes, canteen, transport, housing and medical facilities should be provided to cater for the welfare of workers.iii. There should also be opportunities for growth and development for employees, e.g study leave, provision of library facilities, promotion etc.iv. J oint consultation must be instituted to enable representatives of workers and employers meet to identify common problems and find solutions to them.2.4 Termination of EmploymentEvery employer has the option to terminate the employment of his employees but only on the grounds that certain conditions are meet e.g. giving of appropriate notice and payment of entitlements. Employees also have an option to resign from their present job and look for another provided they also satisfy certain conditions e.g. appropriate notice and proper handing over. There are ways by which a contract of employment may be terminated and they include redundancy, dismissals, retirement and resignation.2.4.1 RedundancyThis is a situation where employees are asked to leave their employment because of lack of work. that is, the organization does not need their service any longer. Therefore when there is reduction in production and the workers are greater than what the organization needs, some are asked to leav e employment.2.4.2 DismissalDismissal is an act of sending an employee away form his employment because be is not qualified, undisciplined or is dishonest in his work. It is the permanent withdrawal of an employee from the services of a company.2.4.3 RetirementIt is the act of retiring or having stopped working after attaining a certain age. The age may either be contained in the companys policy or decision taken by the individual himself.2.4.4 ResignationResignation usually comes from employees. Resignation is the indication by the employee that he has ceased to be in the employment of the employer.2.4.5 Lay OffThis is a temporary withdrawal of employees from work due to shortage of raw materials, low demand for the companies products or services, or financial problems. These employees may be called back when the need arises. When conditions improve and some of the aid-off workers are invited to come back to work, it is known as recall.2.5 EDUCATION, TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT2.5.1 E ducationThis is usually intended to mean basic instructions in knowledge and skills designed to enable people make the most life in general. It is thus a process of training and instructing people in schools, colleges, Polytechnics, universities etc. which is designed to give knowledge and development of skills. At the end of the course, a certificate is given to those who pass their final examination. Education is therefore more personal and broadly based.2.5.2 DevelopmentThis suggests a broader view of knowledge and skills acquisition rather than training. It is less job-oriented and career-oriented. It sees employees as adaptable resources and thus concerned with preparing individuals with skills and experience to fill challenging higher level positions in the organization.2.5.3 TrainingTraining is job oriented rather than personal. Training involves a series of actions aimed at preparing an individual with skills to do a particular job. It may be defined as the systematic develo pment of the attitudes, knowledge and skill patterns required by an individual in order to perform adequately a given task or jobMethods of TrainingThe main methods of training includei. Apprenticeship TrainingThis is a method of training where the apprentice under studies his master for a number of years, learning all the basic skills involved in the profession. This type of training is given to young people who have either completed school or who have not been to school. This type of training is common and popular in professions like tailoring, dressmaking, carpentry, driving and masonry. The apprentice pays a certain amount to his master and he is not paid during the period of his/her training but given allowance as and when necessary by his/her master.ii. Supervisory TrainingThis type of training is give to employees who have been appointed supervisors or foremen. Supervisory training involves the teaching of supervisors or foremen the skill of getting work done through others. It is therefore meant to improve on their leadership skills and qualities. It takes place in an institute in the form of seminars or workshops with discussions on leadership, morale, development, directing, and health and safety measures.iii. Executive TrainingPersonnel in middle management and top management positions are covered under this type